The reliance on inefficient, polluting cooking methods is not only a significant public health issue, but a major driver of deforestation, biodiversity loss and greenhouse gas emissions—all of which contribute to the global climate crisis.
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Over 900 million across Africa people rely on firewood and charcoal for cooking. The prevalence of traditional cooking fuels across the continent is often overlooked, but represents a silent crisis combining severe health and environmental challenges. This reliance on inefficient, polluting cooking methods is not only a significant public health issue, but a major driver of deforestation, biodiversity loss and greenhouse gas emissions—all of which contribute to the global climate crisis.
The environmental and health costs of traditional cooking are staggering. Charcoal production is responsible for large-scale deforestation and indoor air pollution from household cooking contributes to respiratory diseases and premature deaths. The urgency for clean cooking solutions has never been more pronounced, yet the issue remains underfunded and politically sidelined.
Health Impacts of Traditional Cooking
Cooking with solid fuels such as firewood, charcoal and crop residues emits a toxic mix of pollutants, including particulate matter, carbon monoxide and other harmful chemicals. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that household air pollution from these fuels causes over 6.7 million premature deaths each year, the majority of which occur in sub-Saharan Africa. These deaths are largely due to respiratory infections, stroke, heart disease and lung cancer.
The health consequences are particularly severe for women and children. In many African households, women bear the primary responsibility for cooking, meaning they are the most exposed to harmful indoor smoke. Children, often present during cooking, are also vulnerable to the long-term effects of inhaling these pollutants.
Environmental Impact: Deforestation and GHG Emissions
The environmental toll of traditional cooking fuels extends far beyond health concerns. Charcoal production, in particular, is a leading driver of deforestation in Africa. A major source of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions is unsustainable cooking with solid fuels comprising charcoal, wood, crop residue and animal dung explains Kassoum Tuo, Regional Climate Adaptation and Biodiversity Advisor at the World University Service of Canada (WUSC). The inefficient combustion of these fuels in traditional household results in very high emissions of particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), short-lived climate forcers including methane, fluorinated gases, tropospheric ozone and black carbon, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) details Tuo.
The destruction of forests due to unsustainable charcoal production has far-reaching consequences. Forests are vital to climate stability as they regulate water cycles, protect soils, and store carbon. As Patrick Epie, Coordinator for Congo Basin and West Africa at the Forest Stewardship Council, explains, “Forests regulate water cycles, protect soils, and store carbon—making them critical for climate stability and biodiversity. The destruction of forests weakens natural defenses against drought, floods, and food insecurity.” The continued loss of these forests not only contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, but reduces the ability of vulnerable communities to adapt to climate change, making them more susceptible to droughts, floods and food shortages.
Charcoal production itself involves burning wood in low-oxygen kilns that releases large amounts of methane and carbon monoxide. Both are potent greenhouse gases contributing to the cycle of environmental degradation. According to Global Forest Watch, Africa lost nearly 4 million hectares of tree cover in 2022 alone, a significant portion of which can be attributed to the demand for wood fuel. The destruction of forests weakens natural defenses against climate-related disasters including droughts and floods, and reduces the planet’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Innocent Onah, Chief Natural Resources Officer at the African Development Bank, underscores the link between deforestation and climate resilience: “The level of energy poverty-induced deforestation continues unabated due to lower household income and inflationary pressures, which negatively impact climate resilience.” As forested areas continue to shrink, Africa’s capacity to adapt to the worsening effects of climate change is further diminished.
Underinvestment in Clean Cooking Solutions
Despite the challenges associated with charcoal, investment in clean cooking remains very poor, according to Geoffrey Omedo, Technical Specialist – Climate and Energy Finance at UNDP in Abuja, Nigeria. The Clean Cooking Alliance reports that less than 1 per cent of international energy finance is directed toward clean cooking despite the issue affecting nearly one-third of the global population. This underinvestment has left millions of people without access to safer, cleaner alternatives.
Governments, civil society and development partners should invest in sustained behavior change campaigns that educate households, especially women, about the health risks of indoor smoke, the environmental costs of deforestation and the long-term economic advantages of cleaner technologies says Taddeo Rusoke, Conservation Scientist and Sustainable Development Expert working with Mountains of the Moon University in Fort Portal Western Uganda and Founder of Africa One Consult Group. Without public buy-in and widespread awareness, even the most well-designed policy or subsidy risks failing to achieve impact at scale.
Public awareness is essential to the success of any clean cooking initiative suggests Bernadette Ndema, a communications specialist in Uganda. Fostering a deeper understanding of these issues can help shift cultural perceptions and encourage the adoption of cleaner cooking methods to ensure the transition is not only technologically feasible, but widely accepted and sustainable.
The lack of political will and the prioritization of other development issues mean that clean cooking solutions such as improved stoves, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and biogas remain out of reach for the majority of households that still rely on traditional fuels. The economic case for addressing this issue is compelling: shifting to cleaner cooking technologies not only improves public health but provides long-term economic benefits by reducing healthcare costs and environmental damage.
While large-scale solutions are needed, the economic and public health benefits of transitioning to clean cooking are clear. The savings generated from reduced health-related costs alone would offset the investments required for widespread adoption of cleaner technologies. Furthermore, the environmental benefits—reduced deforestation, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and improved climate resilience—make the transition to clean cooking an essential component of Africa’s climate strategy.
Call to Action
The facts are clear: traditional cooking fuels are a major contributor to both health crises and environmental destruction. The technologies are available and scalable solutions already exist. Startups in Kenya have introduced improved biomass stoves that reduce emissions by up to 60 percent and Rwanda’s national LPG promotion policy has expanded urban access. Cameroon, Ghana and Tanzania are pioneering pay-as-you-go LPG technologies using mobile money platforms, making clean cooking affordable to low-income households.
Despite these promising initiatives, leadership and investment remain critical. Policymakers, and development partners can explore ways to prioritize clean cooking solutions as both a public health and climate emergency. The technologies are available. The solutions are scalable. Africa is in urgent need of a coordinated, continent-wide action plan to deliver a just and inclusive clean cooking transition.
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Christopher Burke is a senior advisor at WMC Africa, a communications and advisory agency located in Kampala, Uganda. With over 30 years of experience, he has worked extensively on social, political and economic development issues focused on governance, public health, the environment, agriculture, community mobilization, communications, advocacy, peace-building and international relations in Asia and Africa.
